Surface chemistry

1. Adsorption: The accumulation of molecular species at the surface rather than in the bulk of a solid or liquid is termed as
2. Adsorbate: The substance which is being adsorbed on the surface of another substance is called
3. Adsorbent: The substance present in bulk, on the surface of which adsorption is taking place is called
4. Desorption: The process of removing an adsorbed substance from a surface on which it is adsorbed is called
5. Absorption: It is the phenomenon in which a substance is uniformly distributed all over the
6. Difference between adsorption and absorption:

Absorption	Adsorption
(i) It is the phenomenon in which a substance is uniformly distributed throughout the bulk of the solid.	(i) The accumulation of molecular species at the surface rather than in the bulk of a solid or liquid is termed as adsorption.
(ii) It is a bulk phenomenon.	(ii) It is a surface phenomenon.
(iii) The concentration is uniform throughout the bulk of solid.	(iii) The concentration of adsorbate increases only at the surface of the adsorbent.

7. Sorption: When adsorption and absorption take place simultaneously, it is called
8. Enthalpy or heat of adsorption: Adsorption generally occurs with release in energy, i.e., it is exothermic in nature. The enthalpy change for the adsorption of one mole of an adsorbate on the surface of adsorbent is called enthalpy or heat of
9. Types of adsorption:
   1. Physical adsorption or physisorption: If the adsorbate is held on a surface of adsorbent by weak van der Waals’ forces, the adsorption is called physical adsorption or
   2. Chemical adsorption or chemisorption: If the forces holding the adsorbate are as strong as in chemical bonds, the adsorption process is known as chemical adsorption of

10. Difference between Physical and chemical adsorption:

Physical adsorption (Physisorption)	Chemical adsorption (Chemisorption)
(i) It is non-specific	(i) It is highly specific
(ii) It is reversible	(ii) It is irreversible
(iii) The amount of gas depends upon nature of gas, i.e., easily liquefiable gases like NH3, CO2, gas adsorbed to greater extent than H2 and He. Higher the critical temperature of gas, more will be the extent of adsorption.	(iii) The amount of gas adsorbed is not related to critical temperature of the gas.
(iv) The extent of adsorption increases with increase in surface area, e.g. porous and finely divided metals are good adsorbents.	(iv) It also increases with increase in surface area.
(v) There are weak van der Waals’ forces of attraction between adsorbate and adsorbent.	(v) There is strong force of attraction similar to chemical bond.
(vi) It has low enthalpy of adsorption (20 – 40 kJ mol-1)	(vi) It has enthalpy heat of adsorption (180 – 240 kJ mol-1)
(vii) Low temperature is favorable.	(vii) High temperature is favorable.
(viii) No appreciable activation energy is needed.	(viii) High activation energy is sometimes needed.
(ix) It forms multimolecular layers.	(ix) It forms unimolecular layers.

 PGT Chemistry Notes:- Dilute Solution 

11. Factors affecting adsorption of gases on solids:
    
    3. Nature of adsorbate: Physical adsorption is non-specific in nature and therefore every gas gets adsorbed on the surface of any solid to a lesser or greater extent. However, easily liquefiable gases like NH₃. HCl, CO₂, etc. which have higher critical temperatures are absorbed to greater extent whereas H₂, O₂, N₂ are adsorbed to lesser extent. The chemical adsorption being highly specific, therefore, a gas gets adsorbed on specific solid only if it enters into chemical combination with it.
    4. Nature of adsorbent: Activated carbon, metal oxides like aluminum oxide, silica gel and clay are commonly used adsorbents. They have their specific adsorption properties depending upon
    5. Specific area of the adsorbent: The greater the specific area, more will be the extent of adsorption. That is why porous or finely divided forms of adsorbents adsorb larger quantities of adsorbate. The pores should be large enough to allow the gas molecules to
    6. Pressure of the gas: Physical adsorption increases with increase in
12. Adsorption isotherm: The variation in the amount of gas adsorbed by the adsorbent with pressure at constant temperature can be expressed by means of a curve is termed as adsorption

13. Freundlich Adsorption isotherm: The relationship between X/ mand pressure of the gas at constant temperature is called adsorption isotherm and is given by

 

x/m = K . P1/n

Where x- mass of the gas adsorbed on mass m of the adsorbent and the gas at a particular temperature k and n depends upon the nature of gas and the solid

 x/m = K . P^{1/n ….}(equation1)

for this equation there are three cases from graph:-

1. From point A to b i.e at low pressure  = K . P mean adsorption is directly proportional to pressure. The value of 1/n = 1
2. From point c to d = K i.e at high pressure adsorption does not depend on pressure and value of 1/n = 0
3. From point b to c i.e at moderate pressure  = K . P^1/n where 1/n will be 0 to 1

 Taking logarithm on both sides of equation 1 , we get, 
log x/m = log k + 1/n logP
If we plot a graph between log x/m and log P, we get a straight line.

The slope of the line is 1/n and intercept will be equal to log k.

14. Catalyst: Substances which alter the rate of a chemical reaction and themselves remain chemically and quantitatively unchanged after the reaction are known as catalysts and the phenomenon is known as catalysis.
15. Promoters: Those substances which increase the activity of catalyst are called promoters. Example: Mo is promoter whereas Fe is catalyst in Haber’s Activity of catalyst: The ability of a catalyst to increase the rate of a chemical reaction is called activity of a catalyst.
16. Selectivity of catalyst: It is the ability of catalyst to direct a reaction to yield a particular product (excluding others).

For example:- CO and H₂ react to form different products in presence of different catalysts as follows:

1. Shape – selective catalysis: The catalysis which depends upon the pore structure of the catalyst and molecular size of reactant and product molecules is called shape- selective catalysis. E.g. Zeolites are shape – selective catalysts due to their honey- comb
2. Enzymes: Enzymes are complex nitrogenous organic compounds which are produced by living plants and animals. They are actually protein molecules of high molecular mass. They are biochemical catalysts
3. Steps of enzyme catalysis:

(i) Binding of enzyme to substrate to form an activated complex E+S  -> ES^*

1. ii) Decomposition of the activated complex to form product E S^¹ → E + P
2. Characteristics of enzyme catalysis:
3. They are highly efficient. One molecule of an enzyme can transform 10⁶ molecules of reactants per
4. They are highly specific in nature, e.g., urease catalysis hydrolysis of urea

• They are active at optimum temperature (298 – 310 K). The rate of enzyme catalysed reaction becomes maximum at a definite temperature called the optimum

1. They are highly active at a specific pH called optimum
2. Enzymatic activity can be increased in presence of coenzymes which can be called as
3. Activators are generally metal ions Na⁺, Co²⁺ and Cu²⁺ They weakly bind to enzyme and increase its activity.

• Influence of inhibitors (poison): Enzymes can also be inhibited or poisoned by the presence of certain substances.

21. Distinction between true solution, colloids and Suspension

True solution	Colloids	Suspension
It is homogeneous	It appears to be homogeneous but is actually heterogeneous	It is heterogeneous
The diameter of the particles is less than 1 nm	The diameter of the particles is 1 nm to 1000 nm	The diameter of the particles are larger that 1000 nm
It passes through filter paper	It passes through ordinary filter paper but not through ultra-filters	It does not pass through filter paper
Its particles cannot be seen under a microscope	Its particles can be seen by a powerful microscope due to scattering of light	Its particles can be seen even with naked eye

22. Colloids: A colloid is a heterogeneous system in which one substance is dispersed as very fine particles in another substance called dispersed medium.
23. Dispersed phase: The substance which is dispersed as very fine particles is called dispersed
24. Dispersion medium: The substance present in larger quantity is called dispersion
25. Classification of colloids on the basis of the physical state of dispersed phase and dispersion medium:-

Dispersed phase	Dispersion medium	Name	Examples
Solid	Gas	Aerosol	Smoke, dust
Solid	Liquid	Sol	Paints
Solid	Solid	Solid sol	Coloured gem tones
Liquid	Solid	Gel	Jellies, cheese
Liquid	Liquid	Emulsion	Milk, hair cream
Liquid	Gas	Aerosol	Fog, mist, cloud
Gas	Solid	Solid sol	Pumice stone, foam rubber
Gas	Liquid	Foam	Whipped cream, froth

26. Classification of colloids on the basis of nature of interaction between dispersed phase and dispersion medium :

Lyophobic sols	Lyophilic sols
These colloids are liquid hating.	These colloids are liquid loving.
In these colloids the particles of dispersed phase have no affinity for the dispersion medium.	In these colloids, the particles of dispersed phase have great affinity for the dispersion medium.
They are not stable.	They are stable.
They can be prepared by mixing substances directly.	They cannot be prepared by mixing substances directly. They are prepared only by special methods
They need stabilizing agents for their  preservation.	They do not need stabilizing agents for their preservation.
They are irreversible sols.	They are reversible sols.

27. Classification of colloids on the basis of types of particles of the dispersed phase:
    1. Multimolecular colloids: The colloids in which the colloidal particles consist of aggregates of atoms or small molecules. The diameter of the colloidal particle formed is less than 1
    2. Macromolecular colloids: These are the colloids in which the dispersed particles are themselves large molecules (usually polymers). Since these molecules have dimensions comparable to those of colloids particles, their dispersions are called macromolecular colloids, e.g., proteins, starch and cellulose form macromolecular colloids.
    3. Associated colloids (Micelles): Those colloids which behave as normal, strong electrolytes at low concentrations, but show colloidal properties at higher concentrations due to the formation of aggregated particles of colloidal dimensions. Such substances are also referred to as associated
28. Kraft Temperature (T_k): Micelles are formed only above a certain temperature called Kraft
29. Critical Micelle Concentration (CMC): Micelles are formed only above a particular concentration called critical micelle
30. Soaps: Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids e.g., sodium stearate CH₃(CH₂)₁₆COO^–Na⁺

31. Methods of preparation of colloids:
    1. Chemical methods: Colloids can be prepared by chemical reactions leading to the formation of molecules. These molecules aggregate leading to formation of
    2. Electrical disintegration or Bredig’s Arc method: In this method, electric arc is struck between electrodes of the metal immersed in the dispersion medium. The intense heat produced vaporizes the metal which then condenses to form particles of colloidal size.
    3. Peptization: Peptization may be defined as the process of converting a precipitate into colloidal sol by shaking it with dispersion medium in the presence of a small amount of electrolyte. The electrolyte used for this purpose is called peptizing
32. Purification of colloids:
    1. Dialysis: It is a process of removing a dissolved substance from a colloidal solution by means of diffusion through a suitable membrane.
    2. Electro dialysis. The process of dialysis is quite slow. It can be made faster by applying an electric field if the dissolved substance in the impure colloidal solution is only an
    3. Ultrafiltration: Ultrafiltration is the process of separating the colloidal particles from the solvent and soluble solutes present in the colloidal solution by specially prepared filters, which are permeable to all substances except the colloidal
    4. Ultracentrifugation: In this process, the colloidal solution is taken in a tube which is placed in ultracentrifuge. On rotating the tube at very high speed, the colloidal particles settle down at the bottom of the tube and the impurities remain in The settled particles are mixed with dispersion medium to regenerate the sol.
33. Properties of colloids:
    1. Colour: The colour of colloidal solution depends upon the wavelength of light scattered by the colloidal particles which in turn depends upon the nature and size of particles. The colour also depends upon the manner in which light is received by the observer.
    2. Brownian movement: Colloidal particles move in zig – zag path. This type of motion is due to colliding molecules of dispersion medium constantly with colloidal
    3. Colligative properties: The values of colligative properties (osmotic pressure, lowering in vapour pressure, depression in freezing point and elevation in boiling point) are of small order as compared to values shown by true solutions at the same concentrations.
    4. Tyndall effect: The scattering of a beam of light by colloidal particles is called Tyndall effect. The bright cone of light is called the Tyndall

1. Charge on colloidal particles: Colloidal particles always carry an electric charge. The nature of this charge is the same on all the particles in a given colloidal solution and may be either positive or negative.

Positively charged colloids	Negatively charged colloids
Hydrated metallic oxides such as Fe2O3.xH2O, Cr2O3.xH2O, Al2O3.xH2O	Metallic sulphides like As2S3, Sb2S3 sols
Basic dye stuff like malachite green, methylene blue sols	Acid dye stuff like eosin, methyl orange, Congo red sols
Haemoglobin (blood)	Starch sol, gum, gelatin, clay, charcoal, egg albumin, etc.

1. Helmholtz electrical double layer: When the colloidal particles acquire negative or positive charge by selective adsorption of one of the ions, it attracts counter ions from the medium forming a second layer. The combination of these two layers of opposite charges around colloidal particles is called Helmholtz electrical double
2. Electrokinetic potential or zeta potential: The potential difference between the fixed layer and the diffused layer of opposite charges is called electrokinetic potential or zeta potential.
3. Electrophoresis: The movement of colloidal particles under an applied electric potential is called
4. Coagulation or precipitation: The process of settling of colloidal particles as precipitate is called

Hardy – Schulze rules:

1. Oppositely charged ions are effective for
2. The coagulating power of electrolyte increases with increase in charge on the ions used for coagulation, e.g. Al³⁺ > Ba²⁺ > Na⁺ for negatively charged

[Fe (CN)₆]^4- > PO₄^3- > SO₄^2- > Cl^– for positively charged colloids

37.Types of emulsions:

1. Water dispersed in oil: When water is the dispersed phase and oil is the dispersion medium. E.g. butter
2. Oil dispersed in water: When oil is the dispersed phase and water is the dispersion medium. E.g. milk
3. Emulsification: The process of stabilizing an emulsion by means of an emulsifier.
4. Emulsifying agent: The substances which are added to stabilize the emulsions are called emulsifying agents or emulsifiers. E.g. soaps, gum
5. Demulsification: The process of breaking an emulsion into its constituent liquids is called demulsification by freezing, boiling, centrifugation or some chemical